Reported Speech

Watch this video about reported speech.

Conditional Sentences

Watch the following video that explains the formulation and usage of conditional sentences:

The Passive Voice

Have a look at the following video, which is about the passive voice in English.

Active and Passive Voice

Watch these videos about how to turn sentences from active voice into passive voice.

The Present Perfect

Watch the following video on the Present Perfect.

Present Perfect Vs. Past Simple

Watch these videos about the difference in usage between the Present Perfect and the Past Simple. Take notes on your notebook.

1) Talking about experiences:

2) Talking about duration:

Present Perfect Tense

Grammar video on the formation of the Present Perfect Simple. Watch the video and take notes on your notebook.

Grammar video on the uses of the Present Perfect Simple. Watch the video and take notes.

More on Passives

Why do we use passive sentences?

• We use the passive voice when the receiver of the action is more important than the one who did it:

The new video game was published today. (We are interested in the video game, not the company that published it)

• We can use the passive when we don't know who did the action:

The jewels were stolen yesterday. (It was a robber but we don't know who)

• We use the passive when we don't need to say who did the action:

The prisoners were taken into prison after the trial. (We know that the police did it)

STEP BY STEP: Formation of the Passive Voice

Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle

A valuable painting was stolen from the Museum by a famous thief (passive)

A famous thief stole a valuable painting from the Museum (active)

A valuable painting was stolen from the Museum by a famous thief (passive)

Note the following changes when rewriting active sentences in the passive voice:

1. The object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence (A valuable painting)
2. The finite form of the verb is changed (to be  + past participle) (stole→ was stolen).The tense doesn't change (stole= Simple Past, was=Simple Past)
3.  If we want to say who does an action the subject of the active sentence becomes the object using "by" (a famous thief →by a famous thief)
4. But if the subject of the active sentence is a generic expression (people, they, someone), we never use it in the passive.
   They publish this newspaper daily → This newpaper is published daily.
   Someone stole my car yesterday → My car was stolen yesterday.
   
   

Watch these presentations about the present simple passive and the past simple passive:

Present Simple Passive

   Past Simple Passive

Passive Sentences with two objects 

Rewriting an active sentence with two objects (direct object and indirect object) into the passive voice means that one of the two objects becomes the subject, the other one remains an object. Which object to transform into a subject depends on what you want to focus on:

They gave medals to the winners.

a) The winners were given medals 

b) Medals were given to the winners

*Important: we usually prefer the first example because people are more important.

Remember that the first option (changing an indirect object into a passive subject) doesn't exist in Spanish, so the way to translate both is by using an Impersonal construction:

(a/b) A los ganadores se les dio medallas

Impersonal Passive

Some verbs of reporting (say,report, state, rumour) and belief (believe,think) make an impersonal construction using "It" as the subject. Therefore this passive is called Impersonal Passive.

They say that Literature is more difficult than Maths. 

→   It is said that Literature is more difficult than Maths.

Note the structure:
It is said/reported/rumoured/believed/thought that.......

¿Por qué se usa la pasiva?

• Usamos la pasiva cuando el afectado de una acción es más importante que quien lo hizo:

The new video game was released today.(Han sacado el nuevo videojuego hoy).(Nos interesa el videojuego, no quien lo saca)

• Podemos usar la pasiva cuando no sabemos quién hizo la acción:

Las joyas fueron robadas ayer.(Era un ladrón, claro, pero no sabemos quién)

• Usamos la pasiva cuando no queremos decir quién hizo la acción

The prisoners were taken to jail after the trial (Se llevaron a los prisioneros a la cárcel después del juicio.) (We know that the police did it)

PASO A PASO: Formación de la pasiva

Sujeto + BE (en un tiempo verbal) + Participio

A valuable painting was stolen from the Museum by a famous thief (pasivo)(Un cuadro valisoso fue robado del Museo por un ladrón famoso)

A famous thief stole a valuable painting from the Museum (activo)(Un ladrón famoso robó un cuadro valioso del museo)

A valuable painting was stolen from the Museum by a famous thief (passive)

Presta atención a los siguientes cambios cuando se cambia una frase active a la pasiva:

1. El objeto de la frase activa se convierte en el sujeto de la frase pasiva sentence (A valuable painting (Un cuadro valioso))
2. La forma del verbo se cambia (to be  + participio) (stole→ was stolen).El tiempo verbal de la frase no cambia (stole= Simple Past, was=Simple Past
3.  Si queremos decir quién hace una acción el sujeto de la frase activa se convierte en el agentemediante la preposición "by"(=por)(a famous thief →by a famous thief)
4. Pero si el sujeto de la frase active es una expresión generica -people, they, someone (la gente, ellos, alguien)-no lo usamos en la pasiva.
   They publish this newspaper daily(Publican este periódico a diario → This newpaper is published daily (Se publica este periódico a diario.)
   Someone stole my car yesterday (Alguien robó mi coche ayer) → My car was stolen yesterday.(Mi coche fue robado ayer)
   

Ver las presentaciones de arriba sobre la pasiva en presente y pasado simple.


Oraciones pasivas con doble objeto

Volver a escribir una oración activa con dos complementos objeto (CD y CI) en la voz pasiva implica que uno de los dos objetos se va a convertir en el sujeto paciente (sujeto pasivo), mientras que el otro se quedará como complemento objeto. La elección de cuál complemento objeto va a ser el sujeto paciente dependerá de lo que queramos enfatizar:

They gave medals to the winners.

a) The winners were given medals 

b) Medals were given to the winners

*Importante: se prefiere utilizar el primer ejemplo ya que las personas son más importantes.

Recuerda que la primera opción (cambiar el CI como sujeto pasivo) no existe en español, así que la forma de traducirlo al español es mediante una constucción impersonal con "se":

(a/b) A los ganadores se les dio medallas

Pasiva Impersonal

Algunos verbos que se usan para informar –say (decir), report (informar), state (afirmar), rumour (rumorear) y para indicar creencia - believe (creer), think (pensar) forman una construcción impersonal usando "It" como sujeto, y esta pasiva se llama Pasiva Impersonal.

They say that Literature is more difficult than Maths. 

→   It is said that Literature is more difficult than Maths

Se dice que la literatura es más difícl que la matemática. 

Fíjae en la estructura:
It is said/reported/rumoured/believed/thought that... ( = Se dice/informa/rumorea/cree que...)

 Practice:  Exercise1,  Exercise2, Exercise3, Exercise4, Exercise5, Exercise6, Exercise7.

High vs. Highly

Hi guys!

High (adjective and adverb) has different meanings:

1) extending or reaching some considerable distance above the ground level.

2) important, chief.

3) very great level of sound that the ear can perceive.

4) excited, very happy. (in high spirits = very happy)

Examples: 
The palace is surrounded by a high wall.

She screamed in a higher voice than his.

Mt. Everest in the Himalayas is the highest peak in the world.

  

Remember that ‘high’ is uninflected, i.e. it has the same spelling in adjective and adverb form. 

The building is built on the high level ground.  (high – adjective)

The batsman hit the ball high into the air.  (high – adverb)
Peter can jump high. (high – adverb)  

And ‘high’ is also used as a noun, e.g.:
This year the temperatures reached an all time high.

 "Highly” is an adverb and it means ‘extremely; to a high degree; to a great extent; very’.  It is often used for qualifying adjectives and those adjectives formed from the past participles of verb words:

Watching films in English is highly recommended. [i.e. it's very advisable] 
She speaks highly of her boss.  [i.e. she says good things about her boss with great respect]

He is a highly skilled carpenter.  [i.e. his work is very, very good; he works with great skill]

They are highly paid technicians.  [i.e. they know so much about their job and can do their job 
                                                              so well that they are paid very, very much]

Note that “highly” is not the derivative of the adjective and adverb word ‘high’. For example, with the word ‘quick’, which is an adjective word categorically, has “quickly” as its adverb form, but ‘high’ has the same form as an adjective and as an adverb.

Some of the common words that follow ‘high’ are:  
high-born, high rent, high morale, high-sounding, high-pitched, high-level, high-brow, high spirits (excited/very happy), etc.  Some of the common words that follow ‘highly’ are: highly desirable, highly infectious, highly controversial, highly qualified, highly recommended, highly paid, highly praised, highly seasoned (food), highly-strung (excited), highly dangerous, etc.



¡Hola chicos!

High (adjetivo y adverbio) tiene varios significados:

1) que llega o alcanza a una distancia considerable por encima del nivel del suelo.

2) importante.

3) alto nivel de sonido que se puede percibir por el oído.

4) muy feliz, emocionado. (in high spirits = very happy)

Ejemplos: 
The palace is surrounded by a high wall.

She screamed in a higher voice than his.

Mt. Everest in the Himalayas is the highest peak in the world.

  

Recordad que ‘high’ no admite inflexión, es decir, que tiene la misma forma para el adjetivo y para el adverbio. 

The building is built on the high level ground.  (high – adjective)

The batsman hit the ball high into the air.  (high – adverb)

Peter can jump high. (high – adverb)  

Y ‘high’ puede también usarse como sustantivo, por ejemeplo: 
This year the temperatures reached an all time high.

 "Highly” es un adverbio y significa 'extremadamente, en alto grado, altamente, muy'. A menudo se usa para cualificar adjetivos y con los adjetivos que se forman con participios de pasado: 

Watching films in English is highly recommended. [se recomienda mucho ver cine en inglés]
She speaks highly of her boss.  [ella dice cosas buenas de su jefe con respeto]

He is a highly skilled carpenter.  [su trabajo es muy, muy bueno, trabaja con gran habilidad]
They are highly paid technicians.  [saben mucho sobre su trabajo y pueden hacerlo tan bien 
                                                             que se les paga muchísimo]

Ten en cuenta que “highly” no es la forma derivada del adjetivo o adverbio 'high’. Por ejemplo, con la palabra ‘quick’, que es un adjetivo, tiene “quickly” como su forma de adverbio, pero  ‘high’ tiene la misma forma para adjetivo y adverbio. 

Algunas palabras típicas que van con ‘high’ son:  
high-born, high rent, high morale, high-sounding, high-pitched, high-level, high-brow, high spirits (excited/very happy), etc.  Some of the common words that follow ‘highly’ are: highly desirable, highly infectious, highly controversial, highly qualified, highly recommended, highly paid, highly praised, highly seasoned (food), highly-strung (excited), highly dangerous, etc.

Present Simple vs Present Continuous

Hello students!

Last week we were talking about the differences between the Present Simple and the Present Continuous. We saw the main difference laid on the fact that the Present Simple is used for habits and daily routines whereas the Present Continuous is for things that are happening at the moment of speaking. But I also told you there were some other uses that I'm leaving for you in this post.

 Clic on the table to enlarge.
The Present Simple is used for:

(1) habits and daily routines:
I walk to school everyday; Tom always gets up early in the morning.
(2) permanent states and true facts:

We are Spanish; The sun rises in the east.
(3) future action set by a timetable or schedule:
The film starts at 7.25 pm.; The art exhibition closes on July 12.

The Present Continuous is used for:
(1) actions happening at the moment of speaking:
I'm walking to school now; She's having a shower at the moment.
(2) temporary actions:
We're learning French this year; They're building a new school here.
(3) arrangements for the near future:
I'm going to the cinema this evening; Anna's seeing her Gynaecologist next week

Don't forget about stative verbs. These verbs are usually only used in the Present Simple, not in the continuous form. Examples of stative verbs are those denoting state (be, cost, mean, suit), possession (have, have got, own, possess, belong), senses (see, hear, feel, smell, taste), feelings (love, like, enjoy, hate, hope, want, regret, wish, prefer) and brain work (believe, think, understand, notice, realise, know).

¡Hola alumnos!

Esta semana pasada hemos visto las diferencias entre el present simple y el present continuous. Vimos que la diferencia más importante estaba en que el present simple se usa para expresar hábitos y rutinas, y el present continuous para cosas que suceden en el momento en el que se habla.  Pero también os comenté que hay otros usos que os dejo aquí en este post.

El Present Simple se usa para expresar:

(1) hábitos y acciones rutinarias:
I walk to school everyday; Tom always gets up early in the morning.
(2) estados permanentes y hechos reales o verdades universales:

We are Spanish; The sun rises in the east.
(3) futuro de horarios y programas oficiales:
The film starts at 7.25 pm.; The art exhibition closes on July 12.

 

El Present Continuous se usa para expresar:
(1) acciones que ocurren en el momento de hablar:  
I'm walking to school now; She's having a shower at the moment.
(2) acciones temporales todavía inacabadas:  
We're learning French this year; They're building a new school here.
(3) planes para el futuro próximo y citas oficiales:  
I'm going to the cinema this evening; Anna's seeing her Gynaecologist next week.

Que no se te pasen por alto los stative verbs. Estos verbos suelen usarse sólo en los tiempos simples, no en los continuos. Ejemplos de estativos son los verbos que denotan estado (be, cost, mean, suit), posesión (have, have got, own, possess, belong), sentidos (see, hear, feel, smell, taste), sentimientos (love, like, enjoy, hate, hope, want, regret, wish, prefer) and pensamiento (believe, think, understand, notice, realise, know).

For practice:

Exercise 1, Exercise 2, Exercise 3, Exercise 4

Modals (I): Expressing Ability

Hi there!
Before we start discussing the expression of ability, I am going to make a short review on modal auxiliaries for you.  Modals are special auxiliary verbs that have meaning. This type of verbs are followed by the simple form of the verb, that is what we call a plain infinitive. There are exceptions, such as those known as semi-modals, which include 'to' in their form (have to, ought to, used to). They do not add the 3rd-person singular -s in the present simple, except for have to (has to), and they do not need auxiliary verbs to make negatives and questions (they are auxiliary verbs on their own!). In view thereof and taking into account that some of these verbs are defective (they may lack some tense forms), let's focus on the modals that convey ability. 

Ability basically implies having the skill, the power or the means to do something. You can express a mental or physical ability in the present, the future or the past. Can, which is the present simple form,  is used for present or future ability (e.g. Melissa can type very quickly; The teacher can assist you after the class), and Could, the past simple form, depicts ability in the past. As this verb is defective, it has not got any tense form other than present simple (can), past simple or conditional (could). The rest of verbal forms are developed out of the phrase Be able to (infinitive be able to, past participle been able to, gerund being able to),  by means of which the rest of tenses are conveyed (present perfect have been able to, future simple will be able to, etc.)

When expressing ability, remember to translate Can as "saber," or "poder" in the sense of skill not permission.
I can speak English, French and Spanish   (Sé hablar inglés, francés y español)
My father couldn't use a computer as a child   (De chico, mi padre no sabía utilizar un ordenador)
You will be able to solve this problem by yourself   (Sabrás solucionar el problema por ti mismo)


¡Hola!
Antes de empezar a hablar de la expresión de la habilidad, voy a haceros un pequeño repaso sobre los verbos auxiliares modales. Los modales son verbos auxiliares especiales con significado. Este tipo de verbos van seguidos de la forma simple del verbo, o sea lo que viene a llamarse el infinitivo base. Existen excepciones, como los conocidos semimodales, que ya presentan en su forma la partícula 'to' (have to, ought to, used to). No añaden la -s de tercera persona del singular en el presente simple, excepto 'have to' ('has to') y no necesitan auxiliares para formar las negativas e interrogativas (los modales son auxiliares de sí mismo). Visto esto, y teniendo en cuenta que algunos de estos verbos son defectivos (les pueden faltar alguna forma verbal para expresar algún tiempo verbal), nos vamos a centrar en los modales que expresan habilidad.

La habilidad básicamente implica tener la capacidad, el poder o el medio de hacer algo. Se puede expresar habilidad mental o física en el presente, futuro y pasado. 'Can', que es la forma de presente simple, es usado para la habilidad presente o futura (ej. Melissa can type very quickl; The teacher can assist you after the class), y 'Could', la forma de pasado simple, muestra la habilidad en el pasado. Ya que este verbo es defectivo, no tiene formas para otros tiempos verbales que no sean el presente simple (can), el pasado simple y el condicional simple (could). El resto de las formas verbales se desarrollan a partir del sintagma 'Be able to' (infinitivo 'be able to', participio 'been able to' y gerundio 'being able to'), por medio de las cuales se forman el resto de tiempo verbales (presente perfecto 'have been able to', futuro simple 'will be able to', etc.).

Al expresar la habilidad, recordad siempre traducir 'Can' como 'saber' o también como 'poder' pero con el sentido de habilidad y no de permiso.  

I can speak English, French and Spanish   (Sé hablar inglés, francés y español)
My father couldn't use a computer as a child   (De chico, mi padre no sabía utilizar un ordenador)
You will be able to solve this problem by yourself   (Sabrás solucionar el problema por ti mismo)

Practice:  Exercise1, Exercise2, Exercise3.

Relative Sentences

Hey!

Look at these examples:

I talked to the man who gave you the present.

I gave you the letter which came this morning.

Here, 'who gave you the present' and 'which came this morning' are defining relative clauses. They tell us which person or which thing the speaker mean, that is, they define and provide us with essential information about the man and the letter (in grammatical terms, the antecedent). Which man? The one that gave you a present. Which letter? The one that arrived this morning.

So, a relative sentence is a class of compound sentence with a subordinate clause that is introduced by a relative pronoun. This year, the relative pronouns that we are to study are who (for people), which (for things and animals) and that (more informal for things, animals and people), and the relative adverb where (for places). The rest of relative pronouns and adverbs will be studied in the years to come. Examples:
This is the man who killed my bird. (= This is the man that killed my bird)
This is the cat which killed my bird. (= This is the cat that killed my bird)
This is the city where I was born.

In the first two examples above the relative pronouns function as the subject of the subordinate clause (not in the last example, where is a locative). But, notice that when who, which or that are not the subject of the relative clause, we can leave them out, that is, we can omit them. This is what is called zero-pronoun.

This is the man who I saw with Mary.
This is the man that I saw with Mary.
This is the man I saw with Mary.

I've read the book which you recommended me.
I've read the book that you recommended me.
I've read the book you recommended me.

Note that the who, that and which replace the subject personal pronoun.
I talked to a woman. She gave you Peter's book.
I talked to the woman who gave you Peter's book.
NOT: I talked to the woman who she gave you Peter's book.

Relative clauses can have prepositional verbs. Then, it is very normal to put the preposition at the end of the clause and so you can leave out the pronoun if you like. Look:
The girl who I was looking at was very pretty.
The girl that I was looking at was very pretty.
The girl I was looking at was very pretty.


The book which I referred to was very interesting.
The book that I referred to was very interesting.
The book I referred to was very interesting.


¡Qué hay!
Observa estos ejemplos:

I talked to the man who gave you the present.

I gave you the letter which came this morning.

En estos casos,  'who gave you the present' y 'which came this morning' son are oraciones de relativo especificativas. Nos dicen qué persona o qué cosa quiere decir o referirse el hablante, vaya, que definen y nos dan información esencial sobre el hombre y la carta (llamados en gramática antecedentes). ¿Qué hombre? El que te dio un regalo. ¿Qué carta? La que llegó esta mañana.

Así que, una oración de relativo es una clase de oración compuesta con una proposición subordinada que va introducida por un pronombre relativo. Este año los pronombres relativos que vamos a estudiar son who (para personas), which (para cosas y animales) and that (más informal para personas, animales y cosas), y el adverbio relativo where (para lugares). El resto de pronombres y adverbios relativos se estudiarán en los próximos años. Ejemplos:
This is the man who killed my bird. (= This is the man that killed my bird)
This is the cat which killed my bird. (= This is the cat that killed my bird)
This is the city where I was born.

I've read the book which you recommended me.
I've read the book that you recommended me.
I've read the book you recommended me.

Date cuenta de que who, that y which reemplazan al pronombre sujeto.
I talked to a woman. She gave you Peter's book.
I talked to the woman who gave you Peter's book.
NO: I talked to the woman who she gave you Peter's book.

Las oraciones relativas pueden llevar verbos preposicionales. En ese caso, es normal poner la preposición al final de la proposición subordinada, y así tener la posibilidad de omitir el pronombre si queremos. Mira:
The girl who I was looking at was very pretty.
The girl that I was looking at was very pretty.
The girl I was looking at was very pretty.


The book which I referred to was very interesting.
The book that I referred to was very interesting.
The book I referred to was very interesting.


For practice: Exercise1, Exercise2, Exercise3.

Reported Speech

Hi pupils!
When we want to communicate or report what another person has said, there are two ways: using direct speech or indirect (or reported) speech.

Direct Speech
When we tell exactly what someone else has said, we use direct speech. In this type of discourse, the person's words are placed in quotes and must be word for word. Examples:

She said,"I'm travelling to America."
"Do you have a pen I could borrow?" he asked.
The teacher shouted: "Please, be quiet!"

Reported Speech

Reported speech, unlike direct speech, does not use quotes and need not be word for word. In general, when using reported speech, the tense changes. Below is an explanation of the changes they undergo.

Tense shift is done whenever the reporting verb is in the past. This is called backshift. If it is in the present however no tense changes are undergone in the reported speech sentence, but other changes may occur, especially in some particles (adverbs, pronouns and determiners). Look at these examples:
D.S. Mary says, "I want to go now." --> R.S. Mary says that she wants to go now.   
D.S. Mary said, "I want to go now." --> R.S. Mary said that she wanted to go then.

In the first example, the reporting verb (says) is in the present simple tense, so, no tense change is undergone, but there is a change in the referent of the subject pronoun (now I becomes she). Yet, in the second example, the reporting verb (said) in the past simple tense applies backshift. There are changes in the verb tense, in the subject pronoun and in the time adverb too. 

Backshift in verb tense refers to a step back in time, that is to say, a present simple in direct speech becomes a past simple in reported speech. Thus, present continuous will be past continuous, past simple and present perfect both become past perfect,  Will becomes would, can turns to could, shall to should, may to might, must to had to and so on. We do not change a past perfect or a past modal (could, should, might, had to...) when turning from direct to indirect speech.

Some particles and adverbials are also affected by backshift:  
now - then
here - there 
I - he / she
We - they
my - his / her
our - their

yesterday - the previous day / the day before
last night - the previous night / the night before
tomorrow - the next day / the following day / the day after  
next week - the next week / the following week / the week after


Depending on the type of sentence, reported speech is done in one way or another. Remember that we can find, among others, statements, questions and commands.  

a) Statements: Reported statements are headed by a that-clause. We use that (we can willingly omit it) to introduce the reported clause.    
D.S. She said, "I'm travelling to America." --> R.S. She said that she was travelling to America. 
D.S. Anna said to me, "I won't go out with you." --> R.S. Anna told me she wouldn't go out with me. 



b) Questions:  Interrogative sentences can be introduced by if or whether (for yes/no questions) or by a question word (for wh-questions). The connectors here cannot be omitted, unlike that in statements. Examples:
D.S. She asked, "Do you speak English?" --> R.S. She asked if I spoke English. 
D.S. They asked: "Are you coming or not?" --> R.S. They wanted to know whether I was coming. 
D.S. "How old are you?" asked the man. -->  R.S. The man asked how old I was.


Notice that the word order in the reported interrogative sentence does not undergo subject-auxiliary inversion, applicable only to direct questions.

c) Commands: Imperatives and orders are transformed into reported speech by means of a to-infinitive clause with an indirect object. Typical reporting verbs for commands are tell, order, ask, advise, warn, etc.

D.S. John said: "Open your books, please." --> R.S. John asked the students to open their books.
D.S. Dad said: "Don't be late home tonight!" --> R.S. Dad told me not to be late home that night.


¡Hola alumnos! 
Cuando queremos comunicar o informar de lo que otra persona ha dicho, existen dos maneras de hacerlo: utilizando el estilo directo y el estilo indirecto.



Estilo Directo 
Cuando queremos informar exactamente lo que otra persona ha dicho, usamos el estilo directo.  Con este estilo, lo que la persona ha dicho se coloca entre comillas, y deberá ser palabra por palabra. Ejemplos:
She said,"I'm travelling to America."
"Do you have a pen I could borrow?" he asked.
The teacher shouted: "Please, be quiet!"

Estilo Indirecto
El estilo indirecto, a diferencia del directo, no usa comillas y no tiene que ser palabra por palabra. En general, cuando usamos el estilo indirecto, el tiempo del verbo va a cambiar. A continuación voy a explicar los cambios que sufren los tiempos verbales.


El cambio de tiempo verbal se realiza siempre y cuando el verbo que introduce el estilo directo esté en pasado. A esto se le llama backshift. No obstante, si dicho verbo está en presente, no se van a realizar cambios en los tiempos verbales, aunque si suelen ocurrir otros cambios, sobre todo en algunas partículas (adverbios, pronombres y determinantes). Observa estos ejemplos:
D.S. Mary says, "I want to go now." --> R.S. Mary says that she wants to go now.   
D.S. Mary said, "I want to go now." --> R.S. Mary said that she wanted to go then.

En el primer ejemplo, el verbo introductorio (says) está en presente así que no se aplican los cambios, pero cambia el referente del pronombre sujeto (ahora "I" pasa a ser "she"). En cambio, en el segundo ejemplo, el verbo introductorio (said) en pasado provoca el backshift. Hay pues cambios en el tiempo verbal, en el pronombre sujeto y en el adverbio de tiempo.


El backshift que afecta al verbo se refiere a un paso atrás en el tiempo, o sea, un presente simple en estilo directo pasa a ser un pasado simple en estilo indirecto. Así pues, el presente continuo se convierte en pasado continuo, el pasado simple y el presente perfecto pasan a pasado perfecto, 'will' es 'would',  'can' es 'could', 'shall' es 'should', 'may' es 'might', 'must' es 'had to', etc. Cuando pasamos de estilo directo a indirecto no cambiamos el pasado perfecto ni los modales de perfecto.


Algunas partículas y complementos circunstanciales también se ven afectados por el backshift:
now - then
here - there 
I - he / she
We - they
my - his / her
our - their
yesterday - the previous day / the day before
last night - the previous night / the night before
tomorrow - the next day / the following day / the day after  
next week - the next week / the following week / the week after

Dependiendo del tipo de oración, el estilo indirecto se hace de una forma u otra. Recuerda que podemos encontrar, entre otros, enunciativas, interrogativas y exhortativas.

a) Enunciativas: van encabezadas por una oración con 'that'. Usamos 'that' (que se puede omitir al gusto del consumidor) para introducir la frase indirecta.
D.S. She said, "I'm travelling to America." --> R.S. She said that she was travelling to America. 
D.S. Anna said to me, "I won't go out with you." --> R.S. Anna told me she wouldn't go out with me.

b) Interrogativas: Las interrogativas pueden introducirse con 'if' o 'whether' (para las preguntas totales, del tipo si/no) o con un pronombre interrogativo (si son preguntas parciales, con pronombres o adverbios interrogativos). En este tipo de oraciones los conectores nunca se omiten, a diferencia de lo que ocurría con las enunciativas y 'that'. Ejemplos:
D.S. She asked, "Do you speak English?" --> R.S. She asked if I spoke English. 
D.S. They asked: "Are you coming or not?" --> R.S. They wanted to know whether I was coming. 
D.S. "How old are you?" asked the man. -->  R.S. The man asked how old I was.

Observa que el orden de las palabras en la oración interrogativa de estilo indirecto no conlleva inversión de sujeto y verbo, aplicable solamente a las preguntas directas.

c) Exhortativas:  Las imperativas y órdenes se transforman a estilo indirecto a través de una oración de infinitivo con 'to' precedido por un complemento indirecto. Los verbos introductorios típicos de las exhortativas son: tell, order, ask, advise, warn, etc.

D.S. John said: "Open your books, please." --> R.S. John asked the students to open their books.
D.S. Dad said: "Don't be late home tonight!" --> R.S. Dad told me not to be late home that night.

For practice: Exercise1, Exercise2, Exercise3, Exercise4.

Present Passive & Past Passive

Hiya!

So far we have talked about the active voice, where we focus the verb action on the subject. But when we put more emphasis on the action itself and not the doer of the action, then we use the passive voice. The possibilities of a sentence transformation from active to passive depend on transitivity: only transitive sentences -those containing a direct object- can be turned into passive, since it is the object in the active that becomes the subject in the passive. On the other hand, the active subject becomes the agent in the passive sentence. In English, the agent is introduced by the preposition by. The shift in the verb is made by means of the verb to be just in the same tense as the active verb, then followed by the past participle of that verb. Look at the following structures and examples:

Active:   Subj + Vb + Obj          Peter washes the car.      
Passive: Subj + Vb + Ag          The car is washed by Peter.

Types of Passives
The first type includes the active direct object as the subject in the passive sentence (especially in monotransitive structures):
John saw us in the park last Friday --> We were seen (by John) in the park last Friday
Somebody killed the dog --> The dog was killed 
 
Another type of passive construction has the indirect object in the active as the subject in the passive (especially in ditransitive constructions, that is to say, sentences with a direct object and an indirect object):
The teacher told Sarah her exam marks --> Sarah was told her exam marks
The Queen gave Beckham a gold medal --> Beckham was given a gold medal by the Queen

Notice that with double-object structures, a direct-object-to-subject passive is possible, though the indirect-object construction is best preferred.
A gold medal was given to Beckham by the Queen.

In forthcoming years, you will study another type of passives: impersonal passives.


Choice of Agent
The agent can be optional, obligatory or forbidden in a passive sentence.

◘ 'Optional' means that it is up to the speaker to mention the doer or simply not to mention it. Optional agents are usually common people and the personal pronouns other than they.  
The children wrote letters --> Letters were written (by the children).
Samuel makes mistakes  --> Mistakes are made (by Samuel). 

The focus here is on the action; if I do not want to blame anyone, I do not mention the agent, but if I want to refer to who makes the mistakes, for example, then I do mention the agent. You see, it depends on me. Remember that after a preposition there is a noun phrase or an object pronoun. Watch this:

He cleans up the kitchen --> The kitchen is cleaned up (by him).
I broke the window glass --> The window glass was broken (by me).

◘ They is by itself an instance of what we call 'forbidden' agent. We cannot mention the agent when the doer of the action is unknown, unimportant or obvious, or is someone/somebody, they or people. 
Someone stole my bike yesterday --> My bike was stolen yesterday.  [unknown doer] 
They paint graffity on the school walls --> Graffity is painted on the school walls.  [unimportant doer] 
The police arrested the criminal last week --> The criminal was arrested last week. [obvious doer] 
People speak English in South Africa --> English is spoken in South Africa. [obvious doer]

◘ 'Obligatory' refers to the speaker's necessity to mention the agent. Often, celebrities or important people in history are obligatory in the passive sentence.
Shakespeare wrote 'Romeo and Juliet' --> 'Romeo and Juliet' was written by Shakespeare.
Hitler killed thousands of Jews --> Thousands of Jews were killed by Hitler. 
Bell invented the telephone --> The telephone was invented by Bell.
Rajoy enacts the educational reform bill --> The educational reform bill is enacted by Rajoy.

 


¡Hola!

Hasta ahora hemos hablado de la voz activa donde enfocamos la acción del verbo en el sujeto. Pero cuando queremos dar más importancia a la acción y no a quien la ha hecho, utilizamos la voz pasiva. Las posibilidades de transformación de una oración activa a pasiva dependen de la transitividad de dicha oración: sólo las oraciones transitivas (las que llevan complemento directo) pueden ponerse en pasiva, ya que es el complemento directo de la oración activa el que se convierte en el sujeto de la oración pasiva.  Por otro lado, el sujeto activo va a ser el complemento agente de la pasiva, que en inglés va introducido por la preposición by. El cambio en el verbo se hace por medio del verbo to be en el tiempo que esté el verbo activo seguido del participio de perfecto del mismo verbo. Mira las siguientes estructuras y ejemplos:

Activa:  Subj + Vb + Obj          Peter washes the car (Pedro lava el coche)
Pasiva:  Subj + Vb + Ag           The car is washed by Peter (el coche es lavado por Pedro)


Tipos de Pasiva
El primer tipo tiene el complemento directo en la activa como sujeto de la pasiva (especialmente en construcciones monotransitivas):

John saw us in the park last Friday --> We were seen (by John) in the park last Friday
Somebody killed the dog --> The dog was killed 
 
En el otro tipo de construcciones pasivas el complemento indirecto activo es que se convierte en sujeto pasivo (estructuras ditransitivas, es decir, oraciones con complemento directo e indirecto):
The teacher told Sarah her exam marks --> Sarah was told her exam marks
The Queen gave Beckham a gold medal --> Beckham was given a gold medal by the Queen

Observa que en las estructura de doble complemento objeto, el complemento directo de la activa se puede usar como sujeto en la pasiva, aunque lo más común y lo que se prefiere es usar el indirecto como sujeto.
A gold medal was given to Beckham by the Queen.

En los cursos venideros estudiareis otro tipo de pasivas, las impersonales.



Elección del Complemento Agente
El complemento agente de una oración pasiva puede ser opcional, prohibido u obligatorio.

◘ 'Opcional' quiere decir que depende de la voluntad del hablante mencionar el realizador de la acción o simplemente no mencionarlo. Los complementos agentes opcionales suelen referirse a gente normal y a los pronombre personales que no sean 'they'.  
The children wrote letters --> Letters were written (by the children).
Samuel makes mistakes  --> Mistakes are made (by Samuel). 

The focus here is on the action; if I do not want to blame anyone, I do not mention the agent, but if I want to refer to who makes the mistakes, for example, then I do mention the agent. You see, it depends on me. Remember that after a preposition there is a noun phrase or an object pronoun. Watch this:

He cleans up the kitchen --> The kitchen is cleaned up (by him).
I broke the window glass --> The window glass was broken (by me).

◘ They es por sí un ejemplo de lo que llamamos agente 'prohibido'. No podremos mencionar el complemento agente cuando el que realiza la acción sea desconocido, no importante u obvio, o sea 'someone', 'somebody', 'they' o 'people'.  
Someone stole my bike yesterday --> My bike was stolen yesterday.  [agente desconocido] 
They paint graffity on the school walls --> Graffity is painted on the school walls.  [agente desconocido] 
The police arrested the criminal last week --> The criminal was arrested last week. [agente obvio] 
People speak English in South Africa --> English is spoken in South Africa. [agente obvio]

◘ 'Obligatorio' se refiere a la necesidad que tiene el hablante de mencionar el agente. A menudo, los famosos o las personas importantes en la historia son obligatorias en la oración pasiva. 
Shakespeare wrote 'Romeo and Juliet' --> 'Romeo and Juliet' was written by Shakespeare.
Hitler killed thousands of Jews --> Thousands of Jews were killed by Hitler. 
Bell invented the telephone --> The telephone was invented by Bell.
Rajoy enacts the educational reform bill --> The educational reform bill is enacted by Rajoy. 


For practice: Exercise1, Exercise2, Exercise3, Exercise4.

First and Second Conditionals

Hello folks!

There are several structures in English that are called conditionals."Condition" means "situation or circumstance." If a particular condition is true, then a particular result happens.

There are four basic conditionals that we use very often, namely zero, first, second and third conditionals, though I will refer to just two in this post: First and Second conditionals. As usual, we will finish with some quizzes to check your understanding.

Structure of conditional sentences

The structure of most conditionals is very simple. There are two basic possibilities. Of course, we add many words and can use various tenses, but the basic structure is usually like this: [If condition], [result]; or like this: [result] [if condition].

First Conditional: Possible condition

We use the First Conditional to talk about future events that are likely to happen. That is why they are known as open or possible conditions. We use the connectors if or unless plus a present in the subordinate clause, and in the main clause a will-future. Remember that unless means the same as if not.

 

If we take John, he'll be really pleased.

If you give me some money, I'll pay you back tomorrow.

If they tell us they want it, we'll have to give it to them.

If Mary comes, she'll want to drive.

Unless you study harder this term, you won’t pass the subject.

The if-clause can be used with different present forms, although it is common to have a present simple.

If I go to New York again, I'll buy you a souvenir from the Empire State Building.

If he's feeling better, he'll come.

If she hasn't heard the bad news yet, I'll tell her.

The future clause can contain going to or the future perfect as well as will, and other modal verbs such as can, may and must.

If I see him, I'm going to tell him exactly how angry I am.

Unless we get the contract, we'll have wasted a lot of time and money.

If you go to New York, you must have the cheesecake in Lindy's.

If he comes, you can get a lift home with him.

Second Conditional: Impossible condition

The Second Conditional is used to talk about impossible situations. The condition is not possible to happen because the situation is hypothetical. 

If we were in London today, we would be able to go to the concert in Hyde Park.

If I had millions dollars, I'd give a lot to charity.

If there were no hungry people in this world, it would be a much better place.

If everyone had clean water to drink, there would be a lot less disease.

Note that after I / he/ she /it we must use the subjunctive form were and not was. Some people think that were is the only 'correct' form but other people think was is equally 'correct.' It is a matter of accents, for the form was is widely used in American English.

If she were happy in her job, she wouldn't be looking for another one.

If I were in Japan, I'd have sushi every day.

If she were to enter our market, she'd have big problems.

Note the form ‘If I were you’ which is often used to give advice.

If I were you, I'd look for a new place to live.

If I were you, I'd go back to school and get more qualifications.

The Second Conditional is also used to talk about 'unlikely' situations.

If I went to China, I'd visit the Great Wall.

If I was the President, I'd reduce taxes.

If you were in my position, you'd understand.

Note that the if-clause can contain the past simple or the past continuous.

If I were still working in Brighton, I would commute by train.

If she were coming, she would be here by now.

If they were thinking of selling, I would want to buy.

Note that the main clause can contain would, could or might.

If I had the chance to do it again, I would do it differently.

If we met up for lunch, we could go to that new restaurant.

If I spoke to him directly, I might be able to persuade him.

Also note that sometimes the if-clause is implied rather than spoken.

What would I do without you? ("if you weren't here")

Where would I get one at this time of night? ("if I wanted one")

He wouldn't agree. ("if I asked him")

¡Hola amigos!
Hay varias construcciones en inglés llamadas condicionales. "Condición" quiere decir "situación o circunstancia". Si una condición particular es verdadera, entonces ocurrirá un resultado particular. 


Existen cuatro tipos básicos de oraciones condicionales que usamos muy a menudo, que son las cero, primera, segunda y tercera condicionales, aunque en este artículo sólo me voy a referir a dos de ellas, las de Tipo I y las de Tipo II. Como de costumbre, terminaré con algunos ejercicios para comprobar si lo habéis entendido.

Estructura de las oraciones condicionales

La estructura de la mayoría de las condicionales es muy simple. Hay dos posibilidades básicamente. Naturalemente podemos añadir muchas palabras y usar una gran variedad de tiempos verbales, pero la estructura básica suele ser así:  [If condición], [consecuencia]; o así: [consecuencia] [if condición].

First Conditional: Condición posible

Usamos la Primera Condicional para hablar sobre hechos futuros que son probables que ocurran.  Por eso se conocen como condiciones abiertas, probables o posibles. Utilizaremos las conjunciones if o unless más un verbo en presente en la oración subordinada, y un futuro con will en la principal. Recuerda que unless significa lo mismo que if not.

 

If we take John, he'll be really pleased.

If you give me some money, I'll pay you back tomorrow.

If they tell us they want it, we'll have to give it to them.

If Mary comes, she'll want to drive.

Unless you study harder this term, you won’t pass the subject.

La oración de if puede ser usada con distintas formas de presente, aunque lo normal es que se emplee el presente simple:

If I go to New York again, I'll buy you a souvenir from the Empire State Building.

If he's feeling better, he'll come.

If she hasn't heard the bad news yet, I'll tell her.

La oración de futuro puede llevar going to o el futuro perfecto en vez de un futuro con will,  y otros modales como can, may o must.

If I see him, I'm going to tell him exactly how angry I am.

Unless we get the contract, we'll have wasted a lot of time and money.

If you go to New York, you must have the cheesecake in Lindy's.

If he comes, you can get a lift home with him.

Second Conditional: Condición imposible

La Segunda Condicional se usa para hablar de situaciones imposibles. La condición no puede ocurrir porque la situación es hipotética.  

If we were in London today, we would be able to go to the concert in Hyde Park.

If I had millions dollars, I'd give a lot to charity.

If there were no hungry people in this world, it would be a much better place.

If everyone had clean water to drink, there would be a lot less disease.

Advierte que tras I / he/ she /it debemos usar la forma de subjuntivo were y no was. Algunos piensan que were es la única forma correcta pero otros creen que was es igualmente correcta. En verdad hay un matiz de acentos, pues la forma was es con diferencia la más usada entre los hablantes de inglés norteamericano. 
If she were happy in her job, she wouldn't be looking for another one.

If I were in Japan, I'd have sushi every day.

If she were to enter our market, she'd have big problems.

Quédate con la expresión ‘If I were you’ que a menudo se usa para dar consejo.

If I were you, I'd look for a new place to live.

If I were you, I'd go back to school and get more qualifications.

La Segunda Condicional también se usa para referirnos a situaciones improbables.

If I went to China, I'd visit the Great Wall.

If I was the President, I'd reduce taxes.

If you were in my position, you'd understand.

Nota que en la oración de if puede aparecer un pasado simple o un pasado continuo.

If I were still working in Brighton, I would commute by train.

If she were coming, she would be here by now.

If they were thinking of selling, I would want to buy.

Fíjate también que en la proposición principal puede aparecer would, could o might.

If I had the chance to do it again, I would do it differently.

If we met up for lunch, we could go to that new restaurant.

If I spoke to him directly, I might be able to persuade him.

A veces la oración condicional puede estar implícita en lugar de hablada.

What would I do without you? ("if you weren't here")

Where would I get one at this time of night? ("if I wanted one")

He wouldn't agree. ("if I asked him")

For practice: Exercise1, Exercise2, Exercise3, Exercise4.